A sensor is basically a device that converts the physical parameter (for example, viscosity, temperature, blood pressure, light intensity, humidity, speed, etc.) into a signal(may be electrical or non-electrical quantity) which can be easily measured. For example, let us consider an electrical resistance temperature element. Here the measurand is the temperature which is being sensed … Read more
A sensor producing an electrical output, when combined with some interfacing hardware is termed to be an intelligent sensor. Intelligent sensors are also called smart sensors, which is a more acceptable term now. Sensors + Interfacing hardwares = Smart sensors This type of sensor is different from other types of sensors because it carries out … Read more
In many applications such as audio applications, it is useful to represent a signal in terms of sample values taken at appropriately spaced intervals. The signal can be reconstructed from the sampled waveform by passing it through an ideal low pass filter. In order to ensure a distortionless reconstruction, the original signal must be sampled … Read more
So far we have seen different types of pulse modulation. In this article, we are going to talk about Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a different type of pulse modulation because it is a digital process. Though it uses sampling techniques. The PCM generator produces a series of … Read more
In this article, we will learn about Pulse Time Modulation. In the previous article, we had learned about pulse amplitude modulation. In Pulse Time Modulation, the timing characteristics such as width, position, and frequency are varied with the amplitude of the input signal. So, Pulse Time Modulation are of three types i.e. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Pulse Position … Read more
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is a type of pulse modulation in which the signal is sampled at regular intervals, with each sample proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the time of sampling. There are two types of Pulse Amplitude Modulation Single polarity PAM Double polarity PAM Single polarity PAM In this type of PAM, … Read more
There are some simple relations between currents and voltages of different branches of an electrical circuit. These relations are determined by some elementary laws that are known as Kirchhoff laws or more exactly Kirchhoff Current and Voltage laws. These laws are first derived by Gustave Robert Kirchhoff and therefore these laws are also called as Kirchhoff … Read more
1. Arithmetic Mean 2. Deviation, d 3. Mean or Average deviation 4. Standard deviation, σ 5. Probable Error, r r = 0.6745 σ 6. Mean probable error, rm Also 7. Standard deviation of mean 8. Standard deviation of Standard deviation 9. Minimum range of error 10. Maximum range of error 11. Average range of error 12. Variance, V V = σ2
In this article, we will discuss the working of a 4-Channel Electronic Sampling System. The basic circuit diagram is shown in figure1. Analog inputs are channels 1, 2,3, and 4. The PMOS transistor acts as a switch here. It is in ON state when the gate input is 0 (or low). The following table gives the … Read more
In the previous article, we have learned about Time division multiplexing. In this article, we will learn about multiplexing of data based on frequency division i.e. Frequency Division Multiplexing. The frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is based on sharing the available bandwidth of a communication channel among the signals to be transmitted. Let us understand with the help … Read more